BMD 208 — Pharmacognosy I

• Explain the nature, scope and history of pharmacognosy and the role of modern pharmacognosy in drug discovery. not yet covered
• Apply the principles of plant taxonomy and botanical nomenclature to medicinal plants. not yet covered
• Describe and use the macroscopic and microscopic features of crude drugs from plant, animal and mineral sources for identification. not yet covered
• Prepare sections and mounts of plant material, and perform microscopic measurements of plant cells and tissues. not yet covered
• Characterise organized and unorganized drugs and powders of natural origin. not yet covered
• Detect adulteration and evaluate the quality of crude drugs. not yet covered
• Prepare herbarium specimens and explain their use. not yet covered
• Describe surgical dressings and fibres, and the cultivation, preservation and active constituents of crude drugs. not yet covered

Pharmacognosy

• Define pharmacognosy and related terms not yet covered
• Outline the history of pharmacognosy not yet covered
• Explain the role of modern pharmacognosy in drug discovery not yet covered
• Explain the systems for classifying crude drugs not yet covered
• Describe the scope of pharmacognosy in Ghana not yet covered
• Define taxonomy, systematics, classification, nomenclature and identification not yet covered
• Outline the history and scope of plant taxonomy not yet covered
• Describe the taxonomic hierarchy from kingdom to species not yet covered
• Apply the binomial system and the rules of botanical nomenclature not yet covered
• Explain the importance of correct identification of medicinal plants not yet covered
• Describe macroscopic characters of diagnostic importance not yet covered
• Describe leaf morphology not yet covered
• Describe the morphology of roots, rhizomes, tubers, bulbs and barks not yet covered
• Describe the morphology of flowers, fruits and seeds not yet covered
• Identify common crude drugs from macroscopic characters not yet covered
• Describe plant cell types and tissues not yet covered
• Describe epidermal structures of diagnostic value not yet covered
• Describe cell inclusions and their diagnostic value not yet covered
• Describe the arrangement of tissues in transverse sections not yet covered
• Describe sample preparation: softening, clearing and maceration not yet covered
• Prepare free-hand and microtome sections and temporary and permanent mounts not yet covered
• Calibrate an eyepiece micrometer and measure cells not yet covered
• Determine leaf constants not yet covered
• Describe the lycopodium spore method of quantitative microscopy not yet covered
• Define adulteration, substitution and sophistication not yet covered
• Give examples of adulterants and substitutes not yet covered
• Describe the methods of evaluating crude drugs not yet covered
• Calculate and interpret physicochemical constants not yet covered
• Describe the adulteration of herbal products with synthetic drugs and heavy metals not yet covered
• Define a herbarium and describe its functions 5 questions
• Describe the collection and preparation of plant specimens not yet covered
• Prepare a herbarium specimen not yet covered
• Explain the role of voucher specimens not yet covered
• Describe mineral drugs of pharmaceutical importance not yet covered
• Describe drugs and excipients of animal origin not yet covered
• Distinguish organized from unorganized drugs not yet covered
• Classify surgical fibres and dressings not yet covered
• Describe sources, cultivation, collection and preservation of crude drugs not yet covered
• Describe the major classes of active constituents and identification tests not yet covered

Introduction to pharmacognosy

• Define pharmacognosy and related terms (crude drug, natural product, herbal medicine, phytotherapy, ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry). 16 questions
• Outline the history of pharmacognosy, from traditional systems of medicine to modern pharmacognosy. 19 questions
• Explain the role of modern pharmacognosy in drug discovery, with examples of medicines derived from natural sources (e.g. morphine, quinine, artemisinin, vincristine, paclitaxel, digoxin). 19 questions
• Explain the systems for classifying crude drugs (alphabetical, morphological, taxonomical, pharmacological/physiological, chemical, chemotaxonomic) and their advantages and limitations. 13 questions
• Describe the scope of pharmacognosy in Ghana: herbal medicine practice and research and the regulation of herbal medicines by the Ghana FDA. 12 questions

Introduction to taxonomy

• Define taxonomy, systematics, classification, nomenclature and identification. not yet covered
• Outline the history and scope of plant taxonomy, including artificial, natural and phylogenetic systems of classification and the contribution of Linnaeus. 15 questions
• Describe the taxonomic hierarchy from kingdom to species. not yet covered
• Apply the binomial system and the rules of botanical nomenclature to write plant names correctly, including author citation. 17 questions
• Explain the importance of correct identification of medicinal plants and use identification keys; name major medicinal plant families with examples. 24 questions

Macromorphological features of medicinal plants

• Describe the macroscopic characters of diagnostic importance in crude drugs: size, shape, colour, odour, taste, surface features, fracture and texture (organoleptic evaluation). 18 questions
• Describe leaf morphology (lamina, apex, margin, base, venation, phyllotaxy; simple and compound leaves) as applied to leaf drugs. 14 questions
• Describe the morphology of roots, rhizomes, tubers, bulbs and barks, and distinguish underground stems from roots. 13 questions
• Describe the morphology of flowers, fruits and seeds used as crude drugs. 26 questions
• Identify common crude drugs, including locally used medicinal plants, from their macroscopic characters. 23 questions

Micromorphological features of medicinal plants

• Describe the structure and function of plant cell types (parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma: fibres and sclereids) and tissues (epidermal, ground, vascular: xylem and phloem; cork; secretory tissues). 16 questions
• Describe epidermal structures of diagnostic value: stomatal types (anomocytic, anisocytic, paracytic, diacytic) and trichomes (covering and glandular). 18 questions
• Describe cell inclusions and their diagnostic value: starch grains, aleurone grains, calcium oxalate crystals, cystoliths, fixed oils and mucilage. 17 questions
• Describe the arrangement of tissues in transverse sections of leaf, stem, root and bark. 16 questions

Isolation techniques and microscopic measurement of plant cells and tissues

• Describe sample preparation: softening, clearing and maceration to isolate cells and tissues. not yet covered
• Prepare free-hand and microtome sections and temporary and permanent mounts, using appropriate stains and reagents. not yet covered
• Calibrate an eyepiece micrometer against a stage micrometer, and measure cells and inclusions. not yet covered
• Determine leaf constants (stomatal number, stomatal index, vein-islet number, vein-termination number, palisade ratio), and calculate stomatal index. not yet covered
• Describe the lycopodium spore method of quantitative microscopy. not yet covered

Adulteration of crude drugs

• Define adulteration, substitution and sophistication, and classify the types of adulteration. 14 questions
• Give examples of adulterants and substitutes of crude drugs, and describe how each is detected. 18 questions
• Describe the methods of evaluating crude drugs: organoleptic, microscopic, physical, chemical and biological. 20 questions
• Calculate and interpret physicochemical constants (total ash, acid-insoluble ash, loss on drying, extractive value). 14 questions
• Describe the adulteration of herbal products with undeclared synthetic drugs and heavy metals. 12 questions

Herbarium

• Define a herbarium and describe its functions. 5 questions
• Describe the collection of plant specimens, field notes, pressing, drying, preservation, mounting, labelling and storage. 13 questions
• Prepare a herbarium specimen with a correct label and voucher number. 8 questions
• Explain the role of voucher specimens in medicinal plant research and the work of her herbaria. 6 questions

Mineral drugs of pharmaceutical importance

• Describe mineral drugs of pharmaceutical importance, their sources, properties and uses. 16 questions
• Describe the identification tests and quality concerns for mineral drugs. 12 questions
• Explain the use and risks of clays eaten in Ghana, particularly in pregnancy. 10 questions